Vietnam: A War on Civilians
(Metropolitan, 370 pages)
Illustration by Michael Hogue
Few Americans born after the Tet Offensive know even the barest
facts about the Vietnam War. I aim this generalization not at the
oft-underrated Joe Sixpack but at graduates of our finest universities. I
remember getting coffee with an old friend, then fresh out of Yale,
right after she had backpacked through Vietnam. Whenever she mentioned
the war she referred to the former South Vietnam as “the democratic
side.”
It was immediately clear that she, like virtually everyone else
of her and my generation, had never heard of the Geneva Accords of 1954
to guarantee free elections in South Vietnam, elections scuttled after
the CIA predicted that Ho Chi Minh would win. My friend had had no sense
that the U.S. invaded (a word rarely used, but what else can you call
sending 500,000 troops to a foreign nation?) South Vietnam to prop up an
authoritarian government with little popular legitimacy. We launched a
ruthless pacification campaign; it failed—but not before Washington
spread the war into Laos and Cambodia and ultimately killed some two
million civilians. This was the war, and there was no “democratic side.”
By contrast, my interlocutor—an intelligent and cultured person—did
show a sure command of the political history of Tibet, which had been
the next stop on her Asian tour. From Generation X on down, there is a gaping lack of knowledge about
the most foolish and brutal of our postwar wars. (Yes, worse than Iraq.)
But this is not a vacant lot ready for intellectual development.
Instead this block of nescience is something dense, opaque, and fenced
off with barbed wire. Why is there so much socially reinforced ignorance
about our bloodiest war since World War II?
One reason is that uttering any less-than-flattering account of the
war is likely to make one feel, even in 2013, like a bit of a traitor.
By airing unpleasant facts about the war am I smearing my Uncle G—, an
avid gardener, terrific father, husband, and all-around great guy who
was an Army Ranger in Laos? Am I blood-libeling my brother’s beloved
high-school English teacher who served in the Special Forces advising
and fighting with the Khmer Khrom ethnic minority and wrote a memoir
about it? I don’t doubt this man’s courage any more than I believe that
our war in Southeast Asia can be recast as a “Lost Crusade”—his book’s
title—to protect Vietnam’s ethnic minorities.
Nobody wants to be called out for “spitting on the troops.” Not that
historians have found a single instance of people actually expectorating
on returning Vietnam soldiers. That this piece of revanchist folklore
has taken such firm root shows how hypersensitive America remains to any
hint that the war was anything less than noble. Even after four
decades, you don’t make friends by implying that the personal sacrifice
of members of your community was for nothing.
Or worse than nothing. Because the main reason we don’t want to know
about Vietnam is that it gave so much to not want to know about. Yes,
Vietnam was a military defeat that killed some 58,000 American soldiers
and left 75,000 severely disabled—reason enough, for many, to stuff it
down the memory hole. But as scholar and journalist Nick Turse shows in a
new book that is scrupulously documented, what makes the memory of this
war so worthy of repression is that its defining feature was mass
atrocities against civilians. Rape; the massacres of women, children,
and the elderly; military vehicles running over civilians for sport;
“Zippo raids” that burned down villages; indiscriminate shelling and
aerial bombardment; despoliation of crops and drinking water; routinized
torture—this was the unredeemable essence of our Vietnam War, not
American teenagers coming of age and bonding against a bamboo backdrop,
not “good intentions” in Washington leading us into a “quagmire.”
Of the 33,000 books about the Vietnam War, all but a few eagerly
sidestep the atrocious carnage inflicted on hundreds of thousands of
civilians. Nick Turse’s scholarly mission is to haul it into the center
of historical inquiry and public memory, where it belongs.
Kill Anything That Moves
offers neither argument nor a new narrative—it simply aims to make
violence against civilians “the essence of what we should think of when
we say ‘the Vietnam War’.”
The war was “a system of suffering.” Turse is sick of hearing about
My Lai—the programmatic slaughter of over 500 Vietnamese women,
children, and elderly men carried out on March 16, 1969 by Americal
Division’s Charlie Company, 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry—not because it
wasn’t an appalling war crime but because the event, now fashioned as a
horrific one-off anomaly, has perversely absolved the rest of the war,
obscuring for instance the massacre of 118 civilians at Dien Nien or of
68 civilians at Phuoc Binh; of 200 civilians at An Phuoc; of 86 killed
at Nhon Hoa; 155 killed at the My Khe (4) hamlet.
Turse’s book is sometimes repetitive, by design: “I thought I was
looking for a needle in a haystack,” he says about embarking on his
research, “what I found was a veritable haystack of needles.” There was
nothing exceptional about My Lai. In the words of Ron Ridenhour, the
former helicopter door-gunner who did more than anyone to expose that
particular massacre, it “was an operation, not aberration.”
The numbers are numbing. According to study by Harvard Medical School
and the University of Washington, there were 3.8 million violent war
deaths, of which two million were civilian, with similar estimates
reached by the Vietnamese government and Robert McNamara himself. Up to
500,000 Vietnamese women turned to sex work. 14,000 South Vietnamese
civilians were killed, mostly by U.S. firepower, during the Tet
Offensive. 70 million liters of herbicidal agents, notably Agent Orange,
were dumped across the countryside. (“Only you can prevent forests” was
the travestied Smokey the Bear slogan.) 3.4 million combat sorties were
launched by the U.S. and South Vietnam between 1965 and 1972. The
amount of ammunition fired per soldier was 26 times higher than in World
War II. In the northernmost province of South Vietnam, Quang Tri, only
11 out of 35,000 villages were not damaged by bombing or artillery. A
survey found that 96 percent of Marine Corps second lieutenants said
they would torture prisoners to obtain information.
Turse paints a fresco of casual cruelty and the wholesale destruction
of an agrarian society relocated at gunpoint into “strategic hamlets”
(a plan dreamed up by Harvard professors like Samuel Huntington) and
urban slums. He tells the stories of dozens of individuals, mostly
Vietnamese, whose lives were ruined by the war. Pham Thi Luyen, 13 years
old on October 21, 1967, when American members of Company B, 1st
Battalion, 1st Marine Regiment came to her village of Trieu Ai and
massacred a dozen civilians, including her father. Nguyen Thi Lam, a
villager from the Mekong Delta, who was gunned down by U.S. helicopters
on the morning of May 20, 1968 while at work in the rice paddies; she
lost her left leg, her sister-in-law lost her life. (As Turse reports,
“Even a U.S. Senate study acknowledged that by that by 1968 some 300,000
civilians had been killed or wounded in free-fire zones.”) Bui Thi
Houng, gang-raped by five members of a Marine unit as other Marines shot
dead her unarmed husband, mother–in-law, and sister-in-law in Xuan Ngoc
hamlet on September 23, 1966.
It was a great big homicidal carnival. Sergeant Roy Bumgarner of the
Army’s 1st Cavalry Division, then the 173rd Airborne Brigade, achieved
celebrity within the ranks for his slaughter of Vietnamese civilians,
and when in 1969 he was finally court-martialed for the murder of three
civilians, his only penalty was a reduction in rank and a monthly fine
of $97, which lasted only half a year. Bumgarner stayed on active duty
throughout, quickly rose back from private to sergeant, and was one of
the last U.S. infantrymen to leave the country. One civil affairs
lieutenant involved in the case—and outraged by its lack of
consequence—chalked up the light sentence to “the M.G.R.–the Mere Gook
Rule” which granted free rein to homicidal violence.
But
the relentless violence against civilians was more than the activity of
a few sociopaths: it was policy. This was a war fought along Fordist
principles—Robert McNamara had gone to the Department of Defense
straight from the helm of the auto giant—and the slaughter was
industrial in scale. Victory over the Viet Cong was to be achieved by
quantifiable “kill ratios,” to reach that elusive tipping point where
the insurgency could no longer replenish its troops. This approach
hard-wired incentives to secure a high “body count” down the chain of
command, with the result that U.S. soldiers often shot civilians dead to
pad their tallies and thereby move up the ranks.
It was Gen. Julian Ewell who made the killing of Vietnamese civilians
into standard operating procedure. Ewell assumed the military command
of the Mekong Delta region in early 1968 and immediately upped the
requisite body count to 4,000 a month, then to 6,000. At the end of the
year, he started Operation Speedy Express, a six-month infantry assault
on the delta region, killing thousands of Vietnamese, a great many of
whom were civilians. (Civilian war casualties were 80 percent of all
patients at provincial hospitals.) Air power raised the killing to
industrial scale, with a total of 4,338 gunship sorties, 6,500 tactical
air strikes dropping at least 5,078 tons of bombs and 1,784 tons of
napalm. One American regional adviser described it as “nonselective
terrorism.” As another veteran recalled, “A Cobra gunship spitting out
six hundred rounds a minute doesn’t discern between chickens, kids and
VC.”
Ewell, known by his men as “the Butcher of the Delta,” was awarded a
third general’s star and made a top U.S. military adviser at the Paris
peace talks. His book about the operation was taught at West Point.
Some readers (and many more non-readers) in the United States will
reject this knowledge and accuse Turse of beating up the troops, hating
America, etc. In fact, Turse shows quite a bit of empathy for the
American grunt, a heavily armed teenager in a wholly foreign
environment. But he does not look away from the senseless destruction
U.S. troops perpetrated, “fueled by a toxic mix of youth, testosterone,
racism, anger, boredom, fear, alienation, anonymity, impunity and
excitement.” Turse will not have Lt. William Calley alone made the fall
guy for My Lai, “as if the deaths of more than five hundred civilians,
carried out by dozens of men at the behest of higher command, were his
fault alone.” As the files of the Pentagon’s own War Crimes Working
Group show, “atrocities were committed by members of every infantry,
cavalry and airborne division, and every separate brigade that deployed
without the rest of its division—that is, every major army unit in
Vietnam.”
Telford Taylor, a retired brigadier general and former Nuremberg
prosecutor, daringly argued in 1971 for war crimes tribunals that would
try American officers—this idea went nowhere. Throughout the war there
was a veneer of law regulating the soldiers, but impunity for war crimes
was close to absolute. Even when atrocity allegations (usually made in
the face of heavy peer pressure and intimidation) did result in
investigations, there were few convictions, and such sentences as did
get handed down were generally minimal—and then usually reduced further.
Most cases were allowed to flounder until collapsing upon the soldier’s
discharge. (The pattern of impunity is redolent of Central American
state violence in the 1980s—except the perpetrators have jarringly
non-Latin surnames like Duffy, Cushman, Bowers, Parker.) The War Crimes
Working Group, whose files are the backbone of Turse’s research, was
formed not to investigate and prosecute but to perform damage control:
after the My Lai story broke, never again would the military be caught
off-guard when an atrocity hit the news.
The main effect of the My Lai news was to provoke a wave of sympathy
for Lieutenant Calley, with state legislatures from Mississippi to New
Jersey passing resolutions in support of the man, who was under house
arrest at Fort Benning. (In Georgia, Calley had a vigorous defender in
the young Democratic governor, Jimmy Carter.)
Newsweek’s Vietnam
correspondents, Kevin Buckley and Alex Shimkin, fought a losing battle
to make their magazine publish a long story about the systematic nature
of wartime atrocities, arguing, like Turse today, that My Lai massacres
were widespread and “normal.” The magazine eventually published a
heavily edited version shorn of its most important findings.
A book with such an elevated atrocity-per-page ratio demands the
greatest rhetorical finesse, lest chapters like “A Litany of Atrocities”
and “Unbounded Misery” become mere litanies of atrocities of unbounded
misery. Turse is up to the task: he doesn’t rant, doesn’t scold, and his
writing never raises its voice. His research is a triumph of the
historian’s craft, with sources including hundreds of interviews with
American veterans and dozens with civilian survivors of atrocities,
conducted over several trips to Vietnam. More impressive still is his
mastery of archival resources: Turse was bequeathed the copious notes of
Newsweek’s Buckley and Shimkin, and he has broken new ground
with the previously unexplored files of the Army’s War Crimes Working
Group—which he happened upon in the National Archives and photocopied
for several days straight while sleeping in his car in the parking lot.
And a good thing he made copies because the drive to suppress memories
of Vietnam has entered even the archives: the files were later removed
from the shelves.
But the word is out. Turse’s book has shifted the focus of the
Vietnam War from the stories of American soldiers to the stories of the
civilians whose suffering was orders of magnitude higher. It will be the
work of others to unpack the implications of this seminal work, which
raises so many questions. Do counterinsurgency and pacification
campaigns unavoidably lead to rampant slaughter of civilians? (The
New York Times
marked the 10th anniversary of the Iraq invasion with an op-ed from
counterinsurgency guru John Nagl attempting to salvage his pet tactic
from blood-soaked ignominy of Afghanistan and Iraq.) Can armies
“control” and “protect” a population without routinized atrocity?
And
how much of the slaughter was, according the laws of armed conflict,
legal? Turse generally sticks to the non-legal term “atrocity” rather
than “war crime”—which is very wise, given that the two terms don’t
overlap as closely as many would like to believe. There is no doubt that
American, South Vietnamese, and Viet Cong soldiers violated the laws of
armed conflict in their treatment of civilians. The Geneva Conventions
on the treatment of enemy prisoners weren’t so much flouted as shot in
the temple, a finding confirmed by the Pentagon’s own investigations and
the International Committee of the Red Cross. But how much of the
carnage, particularly that stemming from aerial bombardment, was
perfectly legit under international humanitarian law? The point is still
argued, with military lawyers like W. Hays Parks contending that the
“Rolling Thunder” campaign that dropped 640,000 tons of bombs on North
Vietnam and killed tens of thousands of civilians was in strict
compliance with international law.
Many humanitarian-minded lawyers will bristle at this, but why not
admit that the law is on the side of the B-52s, not that of the
civilians below? Who do you think wrote the law in the first place? We
urgently need to see how the laws of war work in practice, given that so
many hawks of both left and right insist that law and lawyers are a
viable means of fashioning military force into a precise, therapeutic
instrument. But as this book suggests throughout, the primary function
of the Rules of Engagement and military law in general is not to
restrain lethal force but to authorize it. In Vietnam, the overriding
principle of International Humanitarian Law, the current preferred
euphemism for the laws of war, turned out to be the Mere Gook Rule.
War puts incredible stress on the rule of law—when not putting it
through the shredder—and beneath the law, our sense of justice and
morality. Consider the example of U.S. Army Major Carl Hensley, charged
with investigating war-crime allegations. Under pressure to suppress his
findings, he blew his brains out with a shotgun on the day of April 15,
1971. The military came instantly and removed every piece of paper in
the Hensley home. “They pulled the trash cans. They left nothing
behind,” remembers his daughter Karla Hensley, then a child.
What happens when no honest memories of atrocity get left behind? We
learn nothing and repeat the carnage in new places with names like
Fallujah, Haditha, and Helmand. We cover ourselves with the “fog of war”
like a thick fleece blanket, and those who would lift it from us do not
get our thanks. But Nick Turse and his disturbing and necessary book
deserve our deepest gratitude.
